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© 2002 American Society for Clinical Oncology Temozolomide Plus Thalidomide in Patients With Advanced Melanoma: Results of a Dose-Finding TrialByFrom the Departments of Medicine, Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and Radiology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY. Address reprint requests to Wen-Jen Hwu, MD, PhD, Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Ave, New York, NY 10021; email: hwuw{at}mskcc.org
PURPOSE: To establish a safe and tolerated regimen of an oral cytotoxic agent, temozolomide, and a cytostatic agent, thalidomide, in patients with unresectable stage III or IV malignant melanoma. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Patients with unresectable stage III or IV melanoma without brain metastases were entered successively onto four treatment cohorts: level 1, temozolomide 50 mg/m2/d for 6 weeks followed by a 4-week break; levels 2, 3, and 4, temozolomide 75 mg/m2/d for 6 weeks followed, respectively, by breaks of 4, 3, and 2 weeks. Thalidomide was started at 200 mg/d, and escalated to a maximum dose of 400 mg/d. Safety was assessed at weeks 2 and 4 and every 4 weeks thereafter; tumor response was evaluated every 8 to 10 weeks. RESULTS: Twelve patients were enrolled, three on each cohort. Therapy was generally well tolerated on all of the treatment schedules. Thalidomide at a dose of 400 mg/d was well tolerated in patients younger than 70, and 200 mg/d was well tolerated in older patients. The most common adverse events were grade 2 or 3 constipation and neuropathy, which were attributed to thalidomide. Five major responses (one complete, four partial) were documented, all at dose levels 2 to 4. Three of the five responding patients were in the over-70 age group. The median duration of response was 6 months (range, 4 to 17+ months), and the median overall survival was 12.3 months (range, 4 to 19+ months). CONCLUSION: The combination of temozolomide and thalidomide was well tolerated and had antitumor activity in patients with advanced melanoma, including elderly patients over 70 years old.
ONCE MELANOMA reaches advanced stages, it is usually incurable. Only 25% to 40% of patients with regional lymph node disease and less than 10% of patients with disseminated disease have long-term survival.
Dacarbazine (DTIC)-based regimens are considered the standard treatment for patients with unresectable stage III or IV disease.1 Response rates with single-agent DTIC are low, however. Objective responses occur in 10% to 20% of patients, are complete in less than 5% of patients, and persist for a median of only 5 to 6 months. DTIC-containing combination chemotherapy regimens are no more effective, but are more toxic, than DTIC alone.2 Although the addition of biologic agents, such as interleukin-2 and interferon alfa (IFN Temozolomide is an imidazole tetrazinone that was developed as an oral congener of DTIC. When administered on a 5-day dosing schedule every 4 weeks to patients with metastatic malignant melanoma, temozolomide-treated patients showed equivalent overall survival and improved progression-free survival compared with patients treated with DTIC alone.5 In addition, unlike DTIC, temozolomide, which has shown activity against malignant astrocytoma,6 crosses the blood-brain barrier.7 This might be beneficial in melanoma, because CNS metastases are common and are a frequent cause of death.8 Thalidomide is an orally bioavailable agent that possesses sedative, antiemetic, antiangiogenic, and immunomodulatory activities.9-13 Thalidomide also has clinical activity against several cancers,14 although no responses were observed among 17 patients with malignant melanoma treated at a dose of 100 mg daily.15 We hypothesized that the combination of cytotoxic therapy with a biologic modulator might be superior to cytotoxic therapy alone for advanced malignant melanoma. On the basis of pharmacokinetic considerations,16 we hypothesized that administration of temozolomide on a daily, low-dose schedule might have advantages over intermittent, higher dose therapy. We therefore initiated a study to determine a tolerable dosing regimen of temozolomide, using an extended continuous schedule, in combination with thalidomide.
Patients Eligible patients were adults, age  18 years, with histologically confirmed, unresectable stage III or IV metastatic melanoma. Patients were required to have measurable disease, no prior systemic chemotherapy for melanoma, no concurrent immunotherapy or radiotherapy, and a Karnofsky performance status 70%. Prior immunotherapy or radiotherapy was permitted, but must have been completed at least 4 weeks before study entry. Adequate organ function (absolute granulocyte count 1,500/mm3; platelet count 150,000/mm3; serum bilirubin and creatinine levels  1.5 times upper limit of normal; and AST, ALT, and alkaline phosphatase three times upper limit of normal) was required. Patients were excluded if they had any ongoing toxic effect from prior treatment, frequent vomiting or other condition that could interfere with the intake of oral medication, a history of active angina or myocardial infarction within 6 months or significant arrhythmia, grade 2 neurotoxicity, serious infections, concurrent malignancy or human immunodeficiency virus infection, general anesthesia within 2 weeks before starting treatment, or any immunotherapy or radiotherapy within 4 weeks of treatment. Patients with CNS metastases were excluded in order to avoid the confounding effects of CNS disease on the interpretation of thalidomide-induced neurologic toxicities. Pregnant or lactating women were ineligible, and a negative pregnancy test was required immediately before treatment for all women capable of becoming pregnant. All patients complied with the System for Thalidomide Education and Prescribing Safety program, including regular pregnancy testing and approved contraception during treatment with thalidomide. All patients gave signed informed consent. The protocol and consent form were reviewed and approved by the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center institutional review board.
Treatment and Patient Evaluation
Cohorts of three to six patients were planned at each dose level. If any of the first three patients at a given dose level experienced dose-limiting toxicity that was considered related to temozolomide, three additional patients would be enrolled at that level. If three of six patients at a given level experienced dose-limiting toxicity, enrollment at subsequent dose levels would not proceed. Grade 3 or 4 nonhematologic toxicities (except for the known thalidomide side effects of skin rash, constipation, peripheral neuropathy, and excessive sedation) and grade 4 hematologic toxicities were considered dose limiting. Toxicities were graded according to the National Cancer Institute common toxicity criteria. At enrollment, a pathologist at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center confirmed the histologic diagnosis. A complete history and physical examination, routine laboratory studies, ECG, and serum pregnancy testing were performed, and baseline radiographs and scans were obtained to document the extent of disease. During treatment, patients were monitored for signs of toxicity and adverse events with a history and physical examination (including neurologic examination). Interim laboratory evaluations (complete blood count, comprehensive metabolic panel, and lactate dehydrogenase) were performed monthly. Disease measurements, including physical examination, radiography, scanning, and other diagnostic tests, were obtained at the end of each treatment cycle.
Patient Characteristics Twelve eligible patients were enrolled, three at each dose level. Pretreatment characteristics and treatment outcomes are listed in Table 2. The median age was 69.5 years (range, 47 to 75 years) and the median Karnofsky performance status was 90% (range, 70% to 90%). Nine patients (75%) had disease at three or more sites (range, one to eight), most commonly lung, liver, soft tissue, and lymph nodes. The median number of treatment cycles was 1.5 (range, zero to three). One elderly patient (age 75) in dose level 1 was removed from the study after 1 month of treatment, before completing the first treatment cycle, because of persistent peripheral neuropathy despite discontinuation of thalidomide.
Toxicity Treatment with the combination of temozolomide and thalidomide was generally well tolerated, with most toxicity limited to grade 2 (Table 3). Except for a single patient with grade 2 leukopenia, there was no hematologic toxicity. No patient required a reduction in the temozolomide dose. The most common toxicities were constipation, dyspnea, and peripheral neuropathy. The latter generally resolved after dose reduction or discontinuation of thalidomide. Constipation was usually controlled with the use of stool softeners and laxatives. After completing the first cycle of therapy, one patient developed a deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism after prolonged car travel; the relationship of this event to treatment is unknown. Two patients discontinued thalidomide, one during the first cycle and one after the third cycle of therapy, because of peripheral neuropathy. The first of these patients was also an alcoholic, which may have predisposed him to thalidomide-induced neuropathy, although symptoms of peripheral neuropathy were mild before treatment.
One patient developed grade 3 skin rash after two cycles of therapy and was able to resume thalidomide at a lower dose after 1 month off treatment. Dose reduction allowed six additional patients to successfully continue thalidomide therapy (at doses of 50 to 200 mg/d).
Dose level 4 (temozolomide 75 mg/m2/d for 6 weeks, followed by a 2-week break) was safe and well tolerated. The maximum dose of thalidomide achieved in each patient and the doses tolerated at the end of study are listed in Table 4. Thalidomide at a dose of 400 mg/d was well tolerated by patients less than 70 years of age. Five of the six patients tolerated dose escalation according to protocol. One of these five patients required a reduction in the thalidomide dose to 200 mg after 14 weeks; the sixth patient could not tolerate dose escalated beyond 200 mg/d and required eventual dose reduction to 50 mg/d. Of the six patients
Response Objective tumor regression was observed at dose levels 2, 3, and 4 (Table 5). Overall, there was one complete response, four partial responses, three patients with stable disease (including one minor response and two mixed response), and three with progressive disease. The median duration of response for patients with complete or partial response was 6 months (range, 4 to 17+ months). The median overall survival from initiation of treatment was 12.3 months (range, 4 to 19+ months); patients who achieved an objective response lived 5 to 19+ months. Of the 12 enrolled patients, two remain alive. One patient, who achieved a partial response in the lung, discontinued thalidomide after one cycle because of neurotoxicity. He was maintained, off study, on temozolomide alone, and is alive with near complete resolution of pulmonary metastases at 15+ months. Another patient who achieved a complete response discontinued treatment after three cycles because of peripheral neuropathy. He was also maintained off study on temozolomide alone, and is alive with no evidence of disease at 19+ months. Another patient, who developed progressive lung metastases after one cycle on dose level 1 but subsequently responded to treatment with a combination regimen that included temozolomide, survived 18 months.
This trial demonstrates that temozolomide is well tolerated in combination with daily thalidomide. Severe hematologic toxicity did not occur, and other adverse events were relatively infrequent and rarely severe. The occurrence of moderate or severe constipation in three quarters of the patients and peripheral neuropathy in one third deserves comment, however. Although both are known complications of thalidomide therapy, the high incidence suggests the possibility that temozolomide may have augmented the autonomic and peripheral neuropathic effects of thalidomide. Indeed, constipation has been reported in studies of temozolomide, although it was rarely severe.5,16 Although constipation was usually controlled by the regular use of laxatives and stool softeners and did not require dosage modification, the severity of peripheral neuropathy in some patients suggests that thalidomide dosage reduction should be considered for patients with grade 2 peripheral neuropathy. This study was not designed to determine the maximum-tolerated dose of either thalidomide or temozolomide, because the maximum dose of both drugs was predefined. A reduction in temozolomide doses was not required in any patient, and a dose of 75 mg/m2/d for 6 weeks, followed by either a 2-, 3-, 4-week break, was tolerated in all nine patients treated at this dose, irrespective of age. Five of six patients younger than age 70 were able to tolerate a thalidomide dose of 400 mg/d. Although our decision to limit the maximum thalidomide dose to 250 mg/d in patients aged 70 or more was admittedly derived from the experience in only a single patient, only one of the six patients in this age group was able to tolerate this dose level for over 4 weeks, whereas three tolerated a dose of 200 mg/d. Thus, it seems reasonable to recommend the temozolomide dose and schedule used in dose level 4 for phase II trials of the combination, with a maximum thalidomide dose of 400 mg/d for younger individuals and a maximum of 200 mg/d for those over 70. Although demonstration of efficacy was not a primary aim of this study, it is noteworthy that responses were observed in each cohort of patients that received a temozolomide dose of 75 mg/m2/d for 6 weeks (levels 2 to 4), and were durable in some patients. Also noteworthy is that half of the patients in this trial were 70 years of age or older, and were not felt to be suitable candidates for more toxic regimens. Although older patients were more sensitive than younger ones to the sedative effects of thalidomide, three of the five responding patients were in the over-70 age group. Originally developed as a sedative, thalidomide has since been shown to possess antiangiogenic and other biologic modulatory properties. Thalidomide interrupts angiogenesis mediated by basic fibroblast growth factor (which is abundantly produced by melanoma cells),9 upregulates expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (implicated in metastasis) while downregulating E- and L-selectin and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1,10 inhibits tumor necrosis factor alpha production,11 induces production of Th1-type and Th2-type cytokines,12 and costimulates CD8+ and CD4+ T-cell proliferative responses.13 One or more of these activities may cause cytostasis and inhibition of tumor growth. When administered in combination with cytotoxic chemotherapy, cytostatic therapy may inhibit tumor regrowth and the development of resistant disease.17
Temozolomide is approved in the United States for treatment of refractory anaplastic astrocytoma; it is a prodrug that hydrolyzes to monomethyl triazenoimidazole carboxamide at physiologic pH.18 Monomethyl triazenoimidazole carboxamide is the active metabolite of both temozolomide and DTIC. Its complete oral bioavailability and its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier7 make it an attractive alternative to DTIC, which possesses neither of these properties. Temozolomide has shown activity against CNS metastases in melanoma and other malignancies.19 This could be an advantage in melanoma, as CNS metastases are a frequent cause of death.7 The results of several phase II/III trials in melanoma have demonstrated the activity and tolerability of temozolomide, alone or in combination with other drugs.5,20-23 In one phase II trial, temozolomide was administered over 5 days at a dose of 200 mg/m2 either alone or in combination with IFN The current trial used an extended continuous dosing schedule of temozolomide, modeled on phase I results reported by Brock et al.16 This schedule results in a 2.1-fold greater drug exposure over 4 weeks compared with the conventional 5-day dosing schedule. It has been postulated that this schedule might lead to improved antitumor activity by cumulative depletion of O6-alkylguanine-DNA-alkyltransferase, a DNA repair enzyme involved in resistance of melanoma cells to DTIC.24 Continuous dosing may also decrease the opportunity for development of resistant disease by minimizing the length of the intertreatment interval, during which tumor regrowth could occur. In addition, more chronic administration of low-dose chemotherapy may produce an antiangiogenic effect,25 which may augment the activity of or act synergistically with other antiangiogenic agents, such as thalidomide. Combining cytostatic and cytotoxic therapy is a new strategy in melanoma management. By treating both the endothelial cell and tumor cell components concurrently, the combination of cytotoxic and cytostatic therapies has the potential to induce prolonged dormancy and may be more effective than either strategy alone.17,26 In our trial, the combination of temozolomide with thalidomide was well tolerated for up to 6 months and induced complete or partial tumor regression in five of nine patients who received a temozolomide dose of 75 mg/m2/d. On the basis of these findings, a phase II study of this combination is currently ongoing in advanced malignant melanoma to further characterize toxicity and to establish its efficacy, stratified for patients with and without brain metastases.
1. Houghton AN, Bloomer WD, Chu D, et al: NCCN Practice Guidelines for Melanoma: The Complete Library of NCCN Guidelines (CD-ROM), Version 2000. Rockledge, PA, National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2000 2. Serrone L, Zeuli M, Sega FM, et al: Dacarbazine-based chemotherapy for metastatic melanoma: Thirty-year experience overview. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 19: 21-34, 2000[Medline]
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Rosenberg SA, Yang JC, Schwartzentruber DJ, et al: Prospective randomized trial of the treatment of patients with metastatic melanoma using chemotherapy with cisplatin, dacarbazine, and tamoxifen alone or in combination with interleukin-2 and interferon alfa-2b. J Clin Oncol 17: 968-975, 1999 4. Dorral T, Neigrier S, Chevrean C, et al: Randomized trial of treatment with cisplatin, and interleukin-2 either alone or in combination with interferon alfa-2a in patients with metastatic melanoma. Cancer 85: 1060-1066, 1999[CrossRef][Medline]
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Middleton MR, Grob JJ, Aaronson N, et al: Randomized phase III study of temozolomide versus dacarbazine in the treatment of patients with advanced metastatic malignant melanoma. J Clin Oncol 18: 158-166, 2000
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Yung WKA, Prados MD, Yaya-Tur R, et al: Multicenter phase II trial of temozolomide in patients with anaplastic astrocytoma or anaplastic oligoastrocytoma at first relapse. J Clin Oncol 17: 2762-2771, 1999 7. Stupp R, Ostermann S, Leyvraz S, et al: Cerebrospinal fluid levels of temozolomide as a surrogate marker for brain penetration. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 20: 59a, 2001 (abstr 232)
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Agarwala SS, Kirkwood JM: Temozolomide, a novel alkylating agent with activity in the central nervous system, may improve the treatment of advanced metastatic melanoma. Oncologist 5: 144-151, 2000
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D’Amato RJ, Michael S, Loughnan EF, et al: Thalidomide is an inhibitor of angiogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91: 4082-4085, 1994 10. Geitz H, Handt S, Zwingenberger K: Thalidomide selectively modulates the density of cell surface molecules involved in the adhesion cascade. Immunopharmacology 31: 212-213, 1996
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Sampaio EP, Sarno EN, Galilly R, et al: Thalidomide selectivity inhibits tumor necrosis factor alpha production by stimulated human monocytes. J Exp Med 173: 699-703, 1991 12. McHugh SM, Riftkin IR, Deighton J, et al: The immunosuppressive drug thalidomide induced T helper cell type 2 (Th2) and concomitantly inhibits Th1 cytokine production in mitogen-and antigen-stimulated human peripheral blood mononuclear cell cultures. Clin Exp Immunol 99: 160-167, 1995[Medline]
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Haslett PAJ, Corral LG, Albert M, et al: Thalidomide costimulates primary human T lymphocytes, preferentially inducing proliferation, cytokine production, and cytotoxic responses in the CD8+ subset. J Exp Med 187: 1885-1892, 1998 14. Rajkumar SV: Current status of thalidomide in the treatment of cancer. Oncology 15: 867-874, 2001[Medline] 15. Eisen T, Boshoff C, Mark I, et al: Continuous low dose thalidomide: A phase II study in advanced melanoma, renal cell, ovarian and breast cancer. Br J Cancer 82: 812-817, 2000[CrossRef][Medline]
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Brock CS, Newlands ES, Wedge SR, et al: Phase I trial of temozolomide using an extended continuous oral schedule. Cancer Res 58: 4363-4367, 1998 17. Folkman J: Angiogenesis in cancer, vascular, rheumatoid, and other disease. Nat Med 1: 27-31, 1995[CrossRef][Medline] 18. Temodar [temozolomide] capsules [package insert]. Kenilworth, NJ, Schering Corp, 1999 19. Abrey LE, Olson JD, Boutros DY, et al: A phase II study of temozolomide for recurrent brain metastases. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 19: 166a, 2000 (abstr 643) 20. Arance A, Middleton M, Lorigan PC, et al: Three-arm phase II study of temozolomide (TMZ) in metastatic melanoma (MM): Preliminary results. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 19: 573a, 2000 (abstr 2257) 21. Ahmed M, Ready N, Aronson F, et al: Phase II study of outpatient bio-chemotherapy with temozolomide, for metastatic melanoma: BRUOG MEL 69. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 20: 287b, 2001 (abstr 2900)
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Atkins MB, Gollob JA, Mier JW, et al: Phase II pilot trial of concurrent biochemotherapy with cisplatin, vinblastine, temozolomide (CVT), interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interferon 23. Bleechen NM, Newlands ES, Lee SM, et al: Cancer Research Campaign phase II trial of temozolomide in metastatic melanoma. J Clin Oncol 13: 910-913, 1995[Abstract] 24. Tolcher AW, Felton S, Gerson SL, et al: Persistent and marked inactivation of O6-alkylguanine-DNA alkyltransferase (AGAT), a mechanism of resistance to alkylator, with protracted low-dose oral schedules of temozolomide. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 19: 175a, 2000 (abstr 680)
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Browder T, Butterfield CE, Kraling BM, et al: Antiangiogenic scheduling of chemotherapy improves efficacy against experimental drug-resistant cancer. Cancer Res 60: 1878-1886, 2000 26. Teicher BA, Holden SA, Gulshan A, et al: Potentiation of cytotoxic cancer therapies by TNP-470 alone and with other antiangiogenic agents. Int J Cancer 57: 920-925, 1994[Medline] Submitted September 7, 2001; accepted March 14, 2002.
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Copyright © 2002 by the American Society of Clinical Oncology, Online ISSN: 1527-7755. Print ISSN: 0732-183X
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
), to chemotherapy results in a significantly increased response rate, biochemotherapy has not been shown yet to influence survival and is associated with severe toxicities.
